(EN)=MUSEUMS

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In 2007, ICOM, the International Council of Museums, defined the museum as a permanent non-profit institution serving society and its development, being open to the public. It acquires, preserves, studies, exhibits and transmits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for study, education or enjoyment.After a long period of decline, French museums underwent profound changes in the 1960s and 1970s. At present, in what socio-economic and artistic contexts do French museums evolve and what are their aims and purposes?In a first sociological approach, the analysis will define the constraints linked to the attendance of museums, then deal with the museum's social mission by enumerating the means implemented by it to generate public interest and ensure a greater social mix and finally show how art holds a prominent place in this process of democratization of culture.In a second part, we will deal with economic aspects through the museum's own institution and then its objectives and repercussions on the local or wider economic fabric and the image of a city which varies according to the type of zones involved. Indeed, after seeing the functioning of museums in cities known as cultural tradition, we will see what are the specificities of museums located in areas of crisis and/or formerly industrial.

I / SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MUSEUMSIn 2003, more than 55% French people visited a museum, an exhibition or a historical monument according to INSEE. Attendance at heritage sites thus appears to be the most popular cultural activity in France, as evidenced in particular by the success of the Heritage Days held each year in autumn since 1984.This commitment is not unique to France, according to data from a 2001 Eurostat survey, almost half of Europeans visited a museum, a historical monument or an archaeological site that year. These figures, however, bring together heterogeneous practices that extend well beyond the domain of the arts and scholarly culture. The public in museums is still characterized, in France as in other European countries, by a level of education well above average, by a high overrepresentation of the upper classes, and a sub-representation of the popular classes.A / SOCIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS1 / THE SOCIAL FACTORS OF THE FREQUENTATION OF MUSEUMSIt can be noted that attendance at museums is differentiated by gender, age, socio-occupational category and household income of individuals.Indeed, women are more numerous in classical or contemporary art museums  than men. People aged 40 to 49 are the most numerous to visit museums and those who visit them the least are between 25 and 29 and 50 and over.In addition, we can classify them by socio-professional categories in descending order. Individuals with a Bac +2 or higher are the most likely to attend museums while farmers, workers, unemployed and inactive are the least numerous, according to INSEE. To verify this, we conducted a sociological survey. Using the survey method, we questioned individuals about their frequency of visits to the museum over a year. Our conclusion was relatively similar to the one from INSEE, confirming that socio-professional categories with a high level of education, such as managers for example, are more (76% for INSEE and 69% for our survey ) to go to the museum as the workers (they are 64% less than the executives to visit them according to INSEE and, on our own sample of workers, none went to the museum for a year). "If you go to the museum," explain Pierre Bourdieu * and Alain Darbel *, after a serious investigation, it is because you went to school. If you go to the museum often, it's because you went to school for a long time. "Household incomes, which are linked to socio-occupational categories, are also indicative: people with more than € 37,000 per year are the most likely to visit museums, followed by those with incomes of € 23,000 to € 27,000 per year, and the fewest are between € 18 000 and € 23 000 per year and € 12 000 to € 15 000 per year. Statistics show that access to cultural works and therefore museum attendance is the privilege of the cultivated class. Museum attendance is indeed increasing as the level of education increases. Tourism promotes an intensification of cultural practice and tourism, statistically related to educational attainment, reactivates individuals' sense of belonging to a cultured class.This leads us to invoke the inequality of cultural needs between individuals. It is not so. The real possibility of individuals to benefit from museums depends on their place on the social scale. The attitude of the viewer to the works (his ability to understand them or to understand them) depends, first of all, on his instruction, as well as the time he will actually spend in the museum. School and family are the two instances of socialization proper to these faculties of apprehension. A work will be interpreted differently according to social belonging, the popular classes feeling sometimes incompetent when the cultivated classes wish, by aristocratic feeling, to access even more difficult works. This feeling will pass under the guise of the ideology of natural gift. Visitors of the popular classes will thus be more inclined towards museums of historical or folk objects, more affordable and less elitist. The approach of sociologists such as Pierre Bourdieu and Alain Darbel comes here to oppose the charismatic ideology which posits the experience of the work of art as "affection" of the heart. In the book "love of art", these two sociologists highlight the social conditions of access to cultural practice. It shows that culture is not a privilege of nature, but that it would be necessary and sufficient for all to possess the means of taking possession of it so that it belongs to all. The state of min of households also weighs on the french desire to go out. We note that the trend has been increasing for several months. With the crisis, 80% of French people plan to reduce their leisure time according to a poll conducted by Ipsos Logica. Last year, they were already 29% to spend less on their outings, according to the PMU TNS Sofres Leisure Observatory. Since 2009, people actually tend to invite each other more, for reasons of economy. They also invest in indoor activities such as decoration or crafts. The figures reflect a decline in museums, theaters or amusement parks attendance. The cinema, world of escape, has generally maintained. However, there is no cultural collapse at the output level. People continue to go out, to cultivate themselves, because it is a habit and a way of life for them, but they indeed have reduced their frequency of visits.2 / THE DEMOCRATIZATION OF CULTURE AND ITS LIMITSThe French Ministry of Cultural Affairs, created in 1959, aims to "make accessible to the greatest number the most important works of humanity and first of all France", placing the question of the public at the heart of a cultural policy. The public authorities therefore acted for a "democratization of culture", under the direction of the writer and minister André Malraux, appointed by the General de Gaulle. For Malraux, who wants to make all citizens access the works of culture, only art has the virtue of gathering in the framework of a society dominated by rationalism. On the 13th of March, 1966, at the inauguration of the House of Culture in Amiens, Malraux concluded his speech by the apostrophe: "And if you wish, I tell you that you are trying one of the most beautiful things that we have tried in France, because then, before ten years, this hideous word of Province will have ceased to exist in France. " Ten years later, the "province" had ceased to be a "cultural desert", as he wagered. On the other hand, the sociological enlargement of the public of art is far from being achieved. The Department of Cultural Affairs remains fragile. It is being built in a difficult context marked by the weakness of the budget and the constant struggle against the Ministries of Finance and National Education and a strong ministerial instability from the 1970s. Indeed, in 1971, the rapport records the failure of cultural democratization. However, after the 1993 legislative elections won by the Right wing, the new minister Jacques Toubon recasts cultural policy by putting a priority that is to further sensitize all publics to the culture by increasing the cultural action in France.

First, the place of artistic disciplines in school now occupies a more important place than before. New programs are created and contracts are set up in partnership with the National Education, offering for example children visits to museums outside school time. At the same time, spaces are devoted to cultural exhibitions and theoretical and practical teaching on still images (paintings, photographs ...) and animated images has been set up in primary schools. Secondly, a public policy, implemented by the Ministry of Culture and the Direction des Musées de France, aims to widen the public. To this end, mediators responsible for educational and cultural activities are trained and evaluation mechanisms are proposed to improve public awareness. Pedagogical activities aimed at the school public are now accompanied by actions that target adults as well as young people outside school time. These actions targeting the most disadvantaged socio-professional categories are carried out in the neighborhoods and in the ZEP*, with vocational lycées and immigrant associations, often in partnership with social actors.In addition, with a view to better social dissemination of culture, the Ministry set up tailor-made aids according to the economic and social situation of the people concerned. We are witnessing the development of "holiday checks", which can be used in 4,000 cultural sites, including 701 museums and 15 contemporary art centers. In 1998, 4 million French people used the vacancy check and 400,000 of them accessed a cultural site through this mean of payment. Company commitees are also a type of new public for the cultural services of museums and the development of a partnership with them encourages access to exhibitions to a greater number. It should be noted that the Direction des Musées de France has put in place a policy of physical accessibility for disabled people in museums in renovation or creation. Finally, within the framework of agreements and protocols for interministerial agreements, museums are encouraged to develop various partnerships. For example, the Culture / Agriculture Convention aims to "foster the creation, dissemination and cultural and artistic practice in rural areas and to give rural populations a mean [...] to benefit from their natural and cultural heritage". The circular between the Ministry of Justice and Culture aims at the development of educational services in prisons. The agreement between the Ministry of Culture and the State Secretariat for Health expresses the will to "make the hospital more human [...] by setting up cultural projects in hospitals through twinning between the various cultural institutions", and in particular museums. Finally, the charter of objectives Culture and Popular Education aims to "develop diverse artistic and cultural projects and actions in close connection with the population and especially with young people". More recently, the Minister of Culture, Aurélie Filippetti, invited 400 beneficiaries of charitable associations, such as Emmaüs, Restos du Cœur and Secours Populaire, to guided tours of major Parisian exhibitions including those of Dali and Hopper. By inviting the most deprived to the museum and by naming this operation "popular museums, solidarity museums", she stressed that "culture is a vector of fight against inequalities".The democratization of culture, however, remains a persistent problem, as museums and other places of cultural life multiply. Inequalities, even today, prevent the greatest number of people from gaining access to culture. "Culture is not a luxury, it's a necessity," reminds us Gao Xingjian, a Chinese artist who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2000.The continuous movement of household equipment into audiovisual equipment, from the arrival of television to broadband internet, means that today most of our cultural consumption practices take place within our home-based practices and this is a phenomenon known as "home culture" which will hamper museum visits. Cultural policy can hardly take this reality into account because it has always been thought almost exclusively for cultural facilities: from the creation of national museums to the policy of the 1980s, the objective has always been, whatever the design of culture, to work on the extension of a public space.This is called "support for cultural diversity" which is developing today, taking into account globalization and expressing the will to promote access to culture in a multicultural society. It is a real challenge for a ministry with a strong past, a strong administration, and whose actions are now better distributed throughout the country.

B/ A DIVERSITY OF MEANS TO CALL A WIDER AUDIENCE1/ GRATUITY AND OFFERSSince 2011, the permanent collections of museums dependant of the city of Paris are of free access. According to the principle of communicating vases, visitors should then more easily cross the gates of paying exhibitions. In any case, this has been the challenge of these institutions. In 2006, all these Parisian establishments experienced a general increase in their attendance, but unevenly. One finds that gratuity, far from being a decisive criterion of visit, is only one element among others.2/ EVENTS AND OTHER DISPOSITIONS Eliminating the word "Museum" as in Dunkerque where the museum became LAAC ((lieu d’art et d’action contemporaine that we can translate in place of contemporary art and action). It is a way to attract an audience that would "fear" the word museum.´`Les Journees du Patrimoine` (Heritage Days) were created in 1984 and are organized annually by the Ministry of Culture and Communication in partnership with the Directorate General for Heritage. It is moreover implemented by the regional directorates of cultural affairs. This event allows individuals to visit public and private buildings (which are often museums) that open their doors, that are usually closed, uncommonly to reveal "secret" collections. The aim is to attract the interest of a public attracted by the free entry but also by events that are proposed within this framework like guided tours, concerts or themed tours. Competitions are even organized as in the city of Chambord. With more than 12 million visitors in 2012, this event, which makes it possible to discover unknown places, has more and more successes as it grows, The concept of a mobile museum is now gaining momentum too. The first of its kind is MuMo, a museum for contemporary art faimed at children imagined in 2010. Inside a container designed for this purpose and realized by an architect, twenty internationally-renowned artists intervene to explore the thematic theme of "Living together" and children's access to culture. This mobile museum will cover France, Cameroon, Benin and Senegal, among others. Another traveling museum, this time coming from an idea of Karl Lagerfeld, was built on the initiative of the famous haute-couture French house Chanel. It contains in its 128m2 about twenty installations and works of art realized by artists like Daniel Buren, Nobuyoshi Araki or Yoko Ono.The Night of Museums, created in 2005 by the Council of Europe and Unesco in a will of democratization and openness, allows the participating museums to open their doors until unusual hours. This appointment is a unique opportunity for new audiences,especially young people, to discover, for the time of an evening, the richness and diversity of museums, all for free. At the same time there are places of exhibition or spaces of animations. Some museums become scenes of encounters, shows, readings or workshops in family ... Thus, during the eighth edition in 2012, more than 3,000 cultural establishments -including 1,200 in France- opened. France is therefore one of the pillars of the operation, in 2011, some 2 million people flocked to the Museums Night in the Hexagon. For example, the Center Pompidou opened its doors for free on the occasion of the fifth edition of the Nuit des musées. Themed tours and open-access exhibitions were offered until 1am at this occasion. This set of festive, free and convivial events taking place throughout Europe is aimed at "attracting an audience that does not usually come to the museum", as Philippe Belaval, Director General of Heritage at the Ministry of Culture, points out. Moreover, he added that "the opening at night allows us to break the intimidating character of the museum felt by certain publics". Thus, a shuttle service between the Rodin Museum and the Museum of Art and History was installed in Meudon in the Hauts-de-Seine. In Mulhouse, a great game of track, making the museum circuit of the city, attracted some 20 000 people, of which 70% of young people. In Lille, the public is invited by the Palais des Beaux-Arts to participate in a collective work by bringing its books: the works have been used for the construction of a Tower of Babel, currently being realized by the artist Jakob Gautel, as part of an exhibition on Babel in the institution,

3/ DIGITALFormerly technological gadgets and multimedia tools have transformed the relationship between museums and their audiences. Websites, applications and social networks now allow the visitor to prepare, enrich and extend his experience before works of art. Their objectives are to preserve the collections, promote research and give wider access. For a curious public, it is therefore possible to see rare or not very accessible works . This massive digitization, and in very high definition, had the effect of profoundly modify our experience of art.Pages from social network Facebook seem to be a good way to arouse the interest of an "eVisitor". Indeed, this social network has surpassed the 1 billion active users on October 4, 2012 and the figures below show us the involvement of the museums of Paris and its surroundings in the social network by the number of fans, and the number of members who talk about it. Through Facebook, the museum encourages users to enjoy, share or comment on information published in the form of photos, texts, articles or videos. The potential visitor is invited to participate, thus creating a relationship between him and the institution. Some museums even cross the virtual barrier, inviting these "fans" to parties reserved for them. This is the opportunity for Internet users to discover the museum perhaps for the first time and in conditions often privileged (animations, guided tours, cocktails ...). The first such evening was held at the Musée des Arts in Paris in 2010.They have since multiplied, as in the Louvre or the Museum Eugène Delacroix in Paris.The social network Twitter has exceeded the 5 million active French users. It can therefore be considered as an important and influential network in France. Thus, a strong mobilization from the platform was felt especially during the 7th edition of the Night of Museums, where the hashtag* # ndm11 was widely diffused. Here we can prove this by these graphs:The chronology of the tweets shows the evolution of the number of messages over time, from every 10 minutes to an hour. The chart shows the network activity of Twitter with accounts that quote the names of other accounts or the copy of a tweet. One can thus distinguish the most active institutions during this Museum Night 2011 and the virtual connections in the capital. Finally, the last graph shows the most used tags during the event and represents a cloud of keywords. On the podium, hashtag # ndm11 is the better ranked. In addition, museums such as the Musée du Quai Branly, the Musée du Louvre, the Musée d'Orsay, the Musée de Lille and the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Nantes possess a Twitter account. Concerning the content published on the network, it takes different forms: information about exhibitions, museum activities or games involving the members of the network.Recently, there have been many initiatives to showcase museums on Twitter. The 1st of February even became Museum's Day on Twitter. The operation #followamuseum is regularly fueled and allows to discover each day a new museum. Four museums already well established in the social networks, the Museum of Toulouse, the Abattoirs, the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon and the Château de Versailles have even collaborated to create an operation to share the programs during the Night of Museums and to make this event on Twitter live.Google Art Project is a platform dedicated to the visits of 46 online institutions launched in February 2011 and with great noise by Google. Thus, Google pushes even further the dream of bringing to each user the world's largest museums, though without restoring the emotion of a visit.There is also a sharing network entirely dedicated to art called Artfinder which allows to exchange and feed the site of artistic favorites, good cultural plans or opinions on various exhibitions.The Grand Palais, a Parisian monument that has hosted the National Galleries since 1964, at the request of André Malraux, offers a virtual 3D tour on its new website. This visit is the culmination of a major project of restoration and enhancement of the monument begun in 2007. The Grand Palais has been laid out and renovated in order to welcome the public in good conditions, to promote cultural events and events and thus to increase the cultural influence of this institution. This historic building in Paris was built for the Universal Exhibition of 1900 and is "consecrated by the Republic to the glory of French art," as one of its pediments indicates. All its spaces are now accessible to Internet users and allows them to discover unknown aspects of the monument in a modern way. The project's team is very proud of this. It has important architectural features: "Working for the Grand Palais is very rewarding. There was artistically and technically a challenge that urged us all to surpass ourselves. In the end, we are at the forefront of what can be done on the web by combining video and 3D ".The Musée d'Orsay proposes a mobile application allowing to receive practical information, an overview of the collections and to be kept informed of the major events. But it is not the only one. More and more museums are accessing these applications, which allow the dissemination of important elements of the museum to a greater number of people. Indeed, 3 out of 4 people in the world have access to mobile telephony. Thus, the Grand Palais offers a Hopper application for iPad and iPhone, an e-album of an exhibition by Leonardo da Vinci, Picasso, Matisse or Cezanne ... The National Museum of the Middle Ages of Paris, the National Museum Marc Chagall of Nice or the museum of the house Bonaparte in Ajaccio have thus been able to satisfy their publics by digital means.Zoom on the application "Monet Water Lilies - Enhanced"Launched on the occasion of the Claude Monet exhibition, 1840-1926 at the Galeries Nationals of the Grand Palais in Paris, Réunion des Musées Nationaux and the Artlys editions launched this application which allows admirers of Monet and Impressionists alike as well as the uninitiated to discover and immerse themselves in the artist's testament work using an interactive and multimedia way -that is their iPad or iPhone-. The eight panels of the Water Lilies are reproduced in great detail, enriched with works from other museums, photographs and archival documents, accessible from a wall of images with the possibility of zooming in with two fingers on each reproduction in an exceptional quality , something that a museum could not offer, because of the possible prohibition of approaching the work too closely. The user of this application can also access the text of every comment that he can read and listen to. This totally new and revolutionary approach allows us to focus on the notorious work of Monet.Monet paints the Water Lilies, 300 paintings including more than 40 large-format decorative panels, from 1889 to the end of his life, in the open air, facing nature, in Giverny. Water lilies are the source of his inspiration. They condense themes like reality, poetry, light, color, the sense of detail, transparency, reflections of the sky on the surface of the water... Thanks to the technique of Impressionism, Monet erases the boundary between reality and illusion. "Looking at the pond, you see in it, as in a microcosm, the existence of the elements and the instability of the universe which is transformed every minute under our gaze," declare Claude Monet. Indeed, the Impressionists, among whom are Pissarro, Manet, Degas, Sisley or Renoir, seek to reproduce an immediate sensation by capturing the fugitive impression of a scene. That is why Monet painted so many canvases, the water lilies changed over the day, depending on the brightness. To represent these colors, the Impressionists decomposed them. Fragmentation of brush strokes suggests shapes and volumes. We no longer see the model, but we imagine it. They also use primary colors (red, blue and yellow) and their complementary colors (orange, purple and green). Thus, thanks to his cycle of Water Lilies, Monet seeks to communicate to us this physical and mental communion with the elements of nature which is constantly changing.

C/ ART AS A TOOL FOR SENSIBILIZATION ​​​​​​​1/ THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF ARTThe relationship with an art object is an individual adventure that can cause unexpected physical effects. As one can be in a trance after a concert, the repeated vision of masterpieces can put us in a state of exaltation. It is Stendhal's Syndrome, so called because the writer was the first to describe it when he left the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence: "I had a heartbeat, life was exhausted in my house, I walked with the fear of falling. " Without reaching these extremes, paintings and sculptures can cause astonishing physical effects.Beyond the event, visitors seek above all an encounter with other worlds, which will take them out of their daily lives and let them see the reality differently. The soothing beneficial effect, but also stimulating aesthetic sensations on the brain, everyone has been able to experiment it and neurologists have demonstrated it as well. Better yet, the plastic arts make us travel physically. If we let ourselves be caught, art transports us to a place that can be euphoric, but also disturbing. The framework contributes to the conditioning of the visitor. After passing the threshold of the museum, often as impressive as a holy place, one enters a universe of silence. In this caulked and out-of-time world, the mind is more apt to wander and intimate thoughts to arise. One finds oneself in an available state of mind, between dream and reality, much like an awakening; in this second state can arise the deepest part of ourselves to free our memory and our imagination.André Malraux liked to talk about the notion of encounters. For him, an exhibition is what makes it possible to converge and share "inheritance". The cultural mission is therefore to bring about these encounters. Malraux even described as "cathedrals" the places of communion with art. In addition, he warns us about how individuals conceive leisure without culture, that is to say without imagination. Malraux's policy will consist in allowing the encounter, to create the conditions of its existence.

2/ THE ARCHITECTURETaking the example of the Center Pompidou-Metz and taking into account the remarks of the architects Shigeru Ban, we can indeed note that the architectural aspect of a museum is an important factor of attendance.The center has large picture windows, which are therefore very visible and that let guess beautiful openings on gardens. A majestic aspect is added here by the imposing translucent roof that covers the forum, a place of reception for exceptional receptions. An exceptional acoustics in the Wendel auditorium due to the ceiling designed especially for the museum in the form of harmonious waves allows visitors to enjoy real comfort. The conference room is also equipped with modern and comfortable furniture. The building is therefore felt welcoming, especially since its roof constitutes a canopy overflowing largely to protect the building. You can actually take refuge there and feel safe. Generally, the usual white walls of the museums scare the neophytes* whereas here, in the center Pompidou-Metz, there are multiple openings to the outside.The architects thus arrive here to meet the specifications while bringing a completely contemporary aesthetic, almost a sculpture. The goal was to create three exhibition spaces with the maximum number of picture rails* possible. It was therefore decided to orientate 3 galleries along an axis to target a major view of the city of Metz, as in a veduta, a painting in Italian representing a panoramic landscape in great detail. Thus the galleries surround the cathedral, the railway station, famous for its Prussian architecture, and the Gothic city in the distance. Moreover, it is learned during an interview with the architects that the wooden roof, consisting of 18 kilometers of glued laminated beams (almost inexhaustible and perfectly recyclable wood), consists of a repeated hexagonal grid, which is symbolic for France.The Pompidou Museum in Metz is thus a place of life, not a place where one would be afraid of the door. This building is a real work of art, the architect wanted it with large open spaces with unobstructed views and endowed with state-of-the-art performances. The visit to the Pompidou Museum is thus marked in the mind of the visitor.

3/ BIG EXHIBITIONS Exhibitions attracting interest to as many people as possible are a challenge for museums. The three biggest Parisian museums (Orsay, the Louvre and the Center Pompidou) have broken attendance records by using such key artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Matisse, Dali and Degas. Moreover, this enthusiasm for temporary exhibitions is beneficial to the permanent collections, which will allow individuals who come exceptionally to the museum to discover other works, this time less known."The major exhibitions are clearly locomotives" confirms the Ministry of Culture, which announces for 2012 results still better than for 2011. Indeed, the national museums registered 13.4 million visits for the first quarter and 682 000 for the National Galleries of the Grand Palais, an increase of 10%. A year earlier, attendance was already 7% higher than in 2010.At the Grand Palais, the Edward Hopper exhibition welcomed nearly 478,000 visitors since October 10, 2012, or nearly 7,000 visitors per day. Such success has even resulted in the extension of the exhibition (initially scheduled until January 28) to February 3, 2013 and a 24-hour opening the last three days.The painting of the American Edward Hopper is like photography. Thanks to the subjects, the framing and the light, he is able to freeze time, capture fugitive moments and even emotions. Architectures, portraits, depth of field, color work, composition, Hopper's art has indeed been influenced by photographers before inspiring, in turn, filmmakers and photographers. A commercial illustrator, he was even led to work from photographs. Moreover, at Hopper, the instantaneous character of the scenes is accompanied by an impression of silence, which perhaps has a place with the severe hearing problem suffered by the artist and his preference for places of solitude. To grasp the moment is the attempt to express life itself. In a statement for the magazine Reality in 1953, the painter writes: "Great art is the external expression of the inner life ofthe artist, and from this inner life results his personal vision of the world ... The inner life of a human being is a vast and diverse kingdom, which not only involve stimulating arrangements of colors, shapes and designs. The term "life" as it is used in art should not be despised, for it implies all existence, and the domain of art consists in reacting to it and not in avoiding it ... "More generally, the 2012 figures released by the three biggest Parisian museums registered records. There were 10 million visitors in the Louvre, which is one million more than in 2011, more than 3.8 million visitors in the Center Pompidou, an increase of almost 6% and 3.6 million visitors in the Musée d'Orsay, a 15% increase compared to 2011 and which represents its best attendance for 25 years.The exhibition of the Louvre around the recently restored "Sainte Anne" by Leonardo da Vinci welcomed 305,000 visitors in spring 2012. This "Sainte Anne" has since been transferred to the Louvre-Lens for its opening as a real piece maitresse of the museum. It is indeed for the Louvre-Lens one of the stepping-stones of its opening in the province.Leonardo da Vinci took more than 20 years to realize this painting. He first made several essays, "cartons'', before painting it. He did not cease to perfect details and left his work unfinished in 1519. In the upper part of the painting, Vinci represented St Anne, her daughter Mary and his little son Jesus accompanied by a sheep. He made a sketch that pleased him enough to make a great drawing on the scale of a painting. After several cartons made, he will go to the execution of his painting. For the realization, Leonardo da Vinci used a wooden support that he covered with a layer of creamy white, then he punched small holes around the figures on his cardboard, then transferred them on his wooden support and has passed from the black stone into the small holes in order to be able to pose the colors.The artist took more than 20 years to make this painting, and over time, he perfected every detail such as hairstyles or drapes.Before being transferred to the Louvre-Lens, this work was restored for two years. The layer of varnish on the board had been oxidized, which hada yellow hue to the whole work. The repaints were becoming more visible. Vincent Pomarède, chief curator of the paintings department of the Louvre, decided to start a long restoration work, accompanied by a competent team. Indeed, the restoration of one of the masterpieces of the Italian master of the Renaissance was exploitative and triggered a lively controversy because of the risks this project represented. An attempt had already been abandoned in 1990 but the condition of the painting required a restoration. In addition, recent technical progress has made it possible to remove the varnish properly. The restoration budget totaled € 250,000, which is a classic cost for a table of this size.One can compare this prestigious launch on the part of the Louvre-Lens with that of the Pompidou-Metz Center in 2010. Its inaugural exhibition included big names such as Georges Braque, Henri Matisse or Marcel Duchamp and more contemporary artists such as Ben Vautier). This exhibition used all the space of the museum, occupying more than 5 000 m2. Later, the Pompidou-Metz center also used the tapestry "Parade" by Pablo Picasso,one of his flagship work, measuring 17 by 11 meters. This curtain had not been exposed in France for 20 years. This monumental canvas depicts a theatrical scene surrounded by heavy red hangings, opening on a feast and a banquet, in which seven people take part: two harlequin Pierrots, a man in a sailor's costume, another in a Spanish picador outfit, two women and one black servant.This work was mounted as part of the exhibition "1917", an event questioning the artistic creation in that time of war. This theme of war is particularly present in other works of Picasso, including "Guernica" and "Massacre in Korea".Thanks to the increased attendance of this exhibition, the Pompidou-Metz Center decided to extend the event. The museum thus keeps its place in modern art with more than 60,000 works and consequently owning the first collection of modern art in Europe.This success is explained by the attraction of the French and foreign public for large temporary exhibitions. We can also mention the hypothesis of an indirect effect of the crisis, with individuals who leave less on vacation and refocus on heritage. The introduction of an advantageous fees policy may also have provoked this phenomenon, with 40% of free visits, especially for those under 26 years of age.In 2013, the major Paris museums intended to maintain their position in Europe in the category of major exhibitions. Already programmed in the United States and London, a retrospective devoted to American artist Roy Lichtenstein, master of Pop-Art, will take place from 3 July to 4 November 2013 at the Pompidou Center. At the Luxembourg Museum, the exhibition "Chagall, between war and peace" will feature a hundred works by the artist. Between 2009 and 2010, the number of visitors to the 15 museums of the City of Paris increased by 33%. The increase in temporary exposures (+ 42.6%) compared with permanent exposures fell by -9.8%. Temporary exhibitions have proved their worth and promise us an equally good attendance in 2013, in view of the artists presented who are able to attract the interest of a large public.

The museum is nowadays committed to spreading culture to all, and especially to individuals who are not used to going to the museum. The institution is thus desacralized and is no longer reserved for an elite, represented by individuals most often at the level of high diploma.However, in spite of the politics of cultural democratization that are failing, we are witnessing the emergence of totally new ways and means that belong to our century, such as the digital one. The "question of the public" will have to take into account the new conditions of access to art related to the digital domain but also the state of inequalities today in French society.

II/ ECONOMICAL APPROACH OF MUSEALITY A/ AN EVOLUTION WITHIN THE INSTITUTION Today, museums are undergoing growing influence from factors such as the commercialization of culture and are questioning how they operate. Which actors help finance the museum, and what place do they occupy? This questioning is placed in new cultural policies which we will explain by showing how they modify and challenge the museum model.​​​​​​​1 / HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND NEW LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORKSince their inception, museums have relied mostly on public funding. By nationalizing the royal collections and the property of the Church and the emigrants, the men of the Constitution and the Convention implement the idea already present in the spirit of the Enlightenment that cultural heritage, reserved to an elite, is the "legitimate property of the nation and must serve for its education". The Revolutionary Museum gave the State an essential role which was realized by the creation of several establishments: the central museum of the Arts installed in the former Palais du Louvre in 1793, the Museum of Natural History in 1793 too and the conservatory of Arts and Crafts in 1794. The creation of provincial museums in fifteen cities in 1801, whose collections are backed up by state deposits, concretizes the construction of a network under the State control. However, within the cultural policy of the State, museums have not always occupied a leading position. After World War II, the Museums of France managed to manage national museums and the modesty of its means and the weakness of its inspection body were ineffective. The late 1970s (with the Museum Program Act of July 1978) and the 1980s marked a turning point. The national museum policy has been characterized by financial incentives which have been an essential factor in the renovation of major museums in local authorities, such as the Carré d'Art in Nîmes or the Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art Nice. The State efforts, which constituted financial support and expertise in the conduct of the work, contributed to an undeniable revival of the museum landscape in the region. Lyon and Grenoble benefit from this policy of "major works in provinces", which is in fact a policy of creation, renovation, extension and modernization, which also includes the participation of local authorities. Since the 1990s, the French government has refocused its intervention in favor of local authorities in four areas: responsibility for collections, a definition of the cultural sector, an equipment policy and reaffirmed action in favor of local authorities. But the 1945 ordinance really does not correspond anymore to the missions and services that are today those of museums. For this reason, after many years of work, a French museum law was promulgated on January 4, 2002, creating in particular a label "Museums of France" and new tax provisions. More specifically, the Act has four main objectives:- it redefines the role and position of the museum in the face of society's expectations- it harmonizes the status of museums recognized by the State- it improves the protection of collections- it integrates and deepens the logic of decentralizationHaving clarified this new notion of "Musée de France", we will therefore see what are the tax provisions of a museum today in France.

2/ HOW TO GATHER EVER GREATER FUNDS AND WITH WHICH PARTICULAR PARTNERS?A/ FUNDING The museum's status, but also different choices regarding the management of collections, visitors and sources of income, lead to a diversified museum funding structure. For public museums, which account for 60% of French museums, finance comes almost exclusively from public subsidies, either from the State or from local authorities. As in the majority of public accounting systems, any profits made by the institution do not belong to it. So they go back into the community budget. The operating budget of the Louvre-Lens is € 15 million per year: € 4.5 million comes from own revenues, € 8 million from regional grants, € 1 million from the department and € 1 million from agglomeration communities.Private museums rely mainly on receipts from inputs and revenues from related activities. Approximately 20% come from company parties, 10% from restaurants, 15% from booksellers and 55% from ticketing. This equation is now increasingly copied by public museums, which constantly open restaurants, bars, or bookstores. For example, the Center Pompidou is distinguished by its editorial revenues, which represent 17% of the turnover. Its commercial activities and concessions are not negligible either, since they represent 15% of turnover. The Palace of Versailles, a place of art exhibitions, is even claimed to be a real undertaking. He is looking for partners to increase his income, with restaurant signs such as Ladurée or the rental of spaces, especially for filming. These kinds of "cultural bait" represented by shops, bars or restaurants are therefore highly publicized, attracting crowds to shops and being an integral part of the museum. This increase in the appearance of commercial spaces in the museum will also modify the organization chart of the museum. The institution will indeed give them more room, which also means more budget. The Lyon museum, or Confluences museum, is currently undergoing a profound transformation in the context of modernization and plans to recruit 9 people to develop tourism activities, rent space, produce publications and links with the association friends of the museum. More generally, with the creation of jobs and the results of a report by the Court of Auditors, it can be seen that these new functions are very profitable. For example, taking into account space rental for private parties, seminars or parades, on the basis of data provided by 187 museums, 37% of them privatized their space in 2010, a total of 3,382 events, representing an increase in revenues of between 6% and 29%. For example, the Museum of Fine Arts in Rouen has privatized 184 times its spaces.B/ FUNCTIONNING COSTS AND BUDGETMuseums, considered to be service enterprises, have their own cost structure. This characteristic is often explained by the importance of buildings, with construction costs generally increasing over time. For example, initially estimated at € 127 million, the construction of the Louvre-Lens now costs €150 million. It is financed mainly by the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, by European funds (ERDF *), by the agglomeration communities of Lens-Liévin and Hénin-Carvin and by the department. The state represents 4% of the funding, as can be seen in the pie chart below.   This specificity of museums in the cost structure can also be explained by large collections, insurance, security and staffl costs, which represent significant fixed costs*. On the contrary, the marginal cost* of an additional visitor is close to zero, except for the phenomena of congestion* (eg around works as the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci in the Louvre) or at very popular temporary exhibitions. The available physical space is then saturated. According to an empirical survey on the subject, there are economies of scale* below the threshold of about 100,000 visitors per year, with the average cost increasing only beyond this annual number of visitors.Moreover, we can say here that the museum undergoes the law of Baumol*, in other words the law of the fatality of increasing costs. Indeed, the cost of maintaining and conserving their assets increases with the speed of wages of a skilled workforce. This except when we see the construction of new buildings.At the same time, the problem is compensated by productivity gains linked to the reduction of low-skilled jobs (eg, surveillance by cameras), the dissemination of online collections, the use of volunteers and the development of products based on the most famous exhibitions or works.In spite of this, in some cases the budgets allocated do not take into account the need to make provisions for major works or to build new buildings (the notion of accounting depreciation*), and most often underestimate the actual cost of organizing temporary exhibitions (sometimes funded at the expense of important conservation and research activities). To illustrate the example of these "mistakes of undervaluation", we will look at the example of the Confluences Museum which is currently under construction in Lyon. Its construction not only took 5 years behind schedule, but its cost has not stopped increasing; the initial overall budget was estimated at € 61 million in 2000 and increased to € 267 million in 2011, multiplying it by more than four.As a result, these "underpricing errors" have been the subject of sharp criticism, particularly by the opposition Socialist elites. They also denounced the future operating cost they estimate at 30 million euros per year, ie "10% of the investment" instead of the 20 million expected. Still, some hopes are still present. Jean-Jacques Pignard, Vice-President of Culture, replied: "We are reorganizing our museographic pole to pool our resources and we will also have new revenue from ticketing, sponsorship and hospitality / events".

C/ PATRONAGE Refering to the fact of helping and promoting the arts through orders of artworks or private financial aid, patronage is a phenomenon that is currently developing in France. It was referred to in the 2001 Act, which proposed these kinds of projects for renewal in the funding of museums and then supplemented in the 2003 law, which proposes, among other things, 60% tax reduction for businesses and individuals, which represents almost a doubling of tax assistance for corporate philanthropy. The government wants to encourage and develop patronage indeed. First, through the action of the former Minister of Culture, Jean-Jacques Aillagon, and then by the creation of a "patronage mission". The State clearly encourages civil society (private donors and companies) to become involved in the life of public institutions, and public institutions to open up private funding. This law also allows patrons to use the museum as a communication bias. Thus, the jeweler Van Cleef & Arpels was the subject of a retrospective at the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris. The luxurious Louis Vuitton brand at the Carnavalet Museum alike. At the same time, the Louvre, by means of advertising campaigns, called on individuals to contribute to the acquisition of works. Individuals can make donations but also have the opportunity to support the museum by joining annual patronage programs. After a campaign featuring a painting coveted by the Louvre, "The Three Graces" by Lucas Granach, the institution was able to acquire it. This acquisition, which amounted to 5 million euros and which was therefore partly financed by patronage, represents a new and strong work for the Louvre. It thus make available to the french institution one of the most beautiful works from the German painter, one of the most illustrious of the Renaissance. Moreover, this rare piece painted on a small panel of wood has been perfectly preserved. These three feminine nudes of great finesse represent a famous subject in antiquity, which gave rise to many mythological variations. Here, Lucas Cranach the Elder proposes a very personal and deliberately ironic version by situating himself between the realism of the painters of the North and a softer imagination coming from Italian painting. The donations of 7,200 individuals and a dozen companies (harvested in only one month) made this exceptional acquisition possible at the end of 2010. Today, "Les Trois Grâces" has become, alongside the Mona Lisa and the Victory of Samothrace, one of the icons of the museum.At the Louvre, patronage experienced its first so-called "spectacular" effects in 2004. Henri Loyrette, President of the Louvre, testifies that the law is indeed positive: "Thanks to this provision, we finally have an effective tool to enrich the national collections [...] The most recent acquisitions made through business sponsorship [...] represent the equivalent of our acquisition credits for a full year: € 5 million".In the regions, even if few museums have the means and sufficient reputation to practice patronage, some museums can, like the Unterlinden Museum in Colmar, because museums are anchored in their territories and in the history of their region. Indeed, the museum Unterlinden, located in a former medieval cloister of the 13th century, welcomes nearly 200,000 visitors a year and is as such the second most visited museum in France in the provinces. It is a well-known museum to possess the impressive altarpiece of Issenheim alongside its collection of works from the 12th to the 16th century.This altarpiece of Issenheim is indeed the hallmark of the museum because of its striking vision it offers; the temptations of Saint Anthony, recalling the hallucinatory visions of Jerome Bosch, and by its representation on some of the panels, of the ergot of rye, recognizable to their skin riddled with small wounds. The Order of the Antonines, installed at Issenheim, had indeed the vocation of caring for the sick of the "sacred fire". But the Unterlinden Museum is also a center of Rhineland art, home to other remarkable works, such as those of Hans Holbein the Elder, Martin Schongauer and The Melancholy of Lucas Cranach the Elder.The patronage accounted for 15% in the creation of the extension of this museum, amounting to 24.5 million euros. The museum created its patrons circle in 2007, which allows local companies to be majority owners, but also large companies to join them in specific projects. In addition, patrons can choose projects in which they want to invest. The motivations of the companies are varied but one can retain the pride to contribute to such a museum and the idea of ​​fostering territorial development.This private funding provided by the sponsorship thus makes it possible to reduce the cost of financing and to support the projects of a museum. But if the links with the companies are interesting to set up and can lead to beautiful projects, as seen at the Unterlinden Museum, it is not necessary to wait, in the long run, for private financing to replace public funding. We can see that Quebec institutions, which no longer use public funding at all, are struggling today to find their funding and worry about their future.

Museums have thus for the most part improved in terms of their revenues, now imposing themselves as true economic institutions. However, some agents, who hope for great successes inspired from abroad, are overwhelmed by the costs associated with the construction and operation of the museum. Thus, the museum must find an economic balance and moderate its expectations in order to properly manage its management.

B/ MUSEUMS IN CITIES WITH CULTURAL TRADITIONS Some cities that already have a cultural identity decide to use a museum institution to strengthen their competitiveness at the international level. These cities are called "cultural traditions" cities, and although they remain global benchmarks (in 2010, they accounted for 55% of the exhibitions visited on their own), cities with cultural traditions need to strengthen and remain competitive.

2/ A PROMOTION OF HERITAGEThe desire to specialize in a specific theme or the choice to dedicate a museum to a single artist will therefore attract admirers, experts, specialists or collectors, who naturally represent visitors and consumers.a/ Well defined thematics Museums can take ownership of themes, which are sometimes completely new, more attractive and with the intention of "dusting" the museum's institution but also promoting the metropolis through a particular heritage. In recent times everything seems to have to be exhibited in museums. Institutions devoted to archaeological sites or writers, the chair or lace, the Mercedes-Benz, immigration [...] emerge in our regions, mainly in small towns, but they nevertheless have a marked cultural identity. To illustrate this, we will use here examples of proximity, located in Alsace.This region holds an important place on the cultural level thanks to the richness of its heritage. Tradition and modernity are gathered in more than 250 museums and with some 4,500 cultural events recorded each year. The Alsace Region supports the diffusion and balanced access to culture throughout the territory.The Lalique Museum, located in Wingen-sur-Moder and recreated in July 2011, is a unique museum dedicated to the master of glass and crystal, René Lalique. Lalique has been operating in this sector for more than 85 years and is the only production location in the world. With this new modern museum, Northern Alsace showcases the creations of this artist who world famous for his major role in the evolution of the Decorative Arts. The prestigious international agency JM Wilmotte designed this museum by highlighting all the creations thanks to an important design work*. This agency has notably carried out the redevelopment of the Musée d'Orsay, some of the wings of the Louvre Museum, the Fine Arts Museum of Nîmes as well as the Lyon one. The Lalique Museum is also a key element for the touristic and economic development of the Pays de La Petite Pierre and the Vosges du Nord, which also benefit from strong support from the Department of Bas-Rhin and the Alsace Region. 120,000 entries have been booked since its opening. The installation of a "glass and crystal road", through the glass-production sites of the East of France, will further enhance its attractiveness. To complement our remarks, we are going to refer here to a subject not only topical but also local, dealing with the example of the Musee du Bagage in Haguenau. Recently opened in 2011, this museum is devoted exclusively to a subject: trunks and luggage. He thus exhibits an exclusive collection of rare pieces ''chinées'' in the four corners of the world by a couple of enthusiasts. Little by little, a team of amateurs and restaurant professionals gathered around this project and the museum registered more than 5,500 visitors. This museum is a good example for dealing with the actuality of this phenomenon because its operation does not follow the classic example of the French museum. Indeed, it does not have either state aid or assistance from local and regional authorities. 85% of the budget is provided by the main patron, the company Rêves de Bagages, which manages the luxury restoration workshops in the same premises as the museum. It generated a turnover of 350,000 euros, the profits of which were donated to the museum. However, museum managers have the moral and technical assistance of several private patrons, the best known being the Vuitton family. Mrs. Danièle Masson Vuitton has indeed helped the Haguenovian project: she created a society for the conservation and restoration of the trunks of her family and offered 20% of the shares to "Rêve de Bagages". There are, however, also volunteers who participate and thus help the museum, which gives a more human dimension to the project. A classical museum must spend part of its budget to print leaflets or on communication. Here at Musee du Bagage, the managers are completely free to invent other solutions. For example, the luggage museum has been loaned to a major brand to invite its clients to a prestigious evening at a private party. The brand has financed 3,000 advertising brochures. These thematic museums stand out from the large collections of museums that are often more important, in terms of size, budget and functioning. They thus give a more humane dimension to the museum by being managed above all by enthusiasts and volunteers, as Jean-Philippe Rolland, manager of the Musee du Bagage, underlines; "Passion and envy are more important and effective resources in the long run [of a museum]." The success of this type of museum is reflected in an ambitious project to develop the Musée du Bagage in Haguenau. The museum should move in two years. A Haguenovian entrepreneur has indeed obtained a building permit for a building of 2 000m2 whereas the current one is made of only 400. Its construction will cost 600 000 euros and the luggage will be highlighted here by studied staging. The project also includes entertainment for children and a restaurant. The interior design of these new premises will require an investment of 400,000 euros. The Alsace Region could subsidize the operation via two devices; the first concerns the use of wood in the construction of the new building and the second concerns the tourism and territorial development impact of the interior design project.

b/ The valorization of a sole artist The cultural identity of a city or region can be rightly claimed through museums paying tribute or devoting themselves to a particular artist. In Strasbourg, the Tomi Ungerer Museum, inaugurated in 2007, was created to bring together the works of Tomi Ungerer, an internationally renowned artist from Strasbourg. He is considered one of the most brilliant cartoonist of his generation and has had an international career since 1957 in many fields of graphic art. The city of Strasbourg thus took advantage of this notoriety by creating a unique and legitimate proposal; and it was furthermore the only one to be able to offer it. Strasbourg, the 7th most populated city in France, has about fifteen museums and has been ranked 4th in a list of the best cultural destinations. Its place in the field of culture is already well marked. The creation of the Tomi Ungerer Museum is therefore only a mean of strengthening its competitiveness and of maintaining its active place in the rapidly expanding field of culture. Publicity posters in Strasbourg and a tram stop in his name marked the establishment of the museum. Moreover, the presence of the artist is reinforced in the city thanks to the Janus Aqueduct, which is a gift of Tomi Ungerer to the city of Strasbourg in commemoration of the 2,000 years of life of the city.A part of his work, which is rich from 30 000 to 40 000 drawings, is now exhibited in the Tomi Ungerer Museum in Strasbourg. The collection comes from several donations made by the artist to his hometown since 1975 and includes no less than 11,000 original drawings, prints, a documentary background and a library. In addition, 6,500 toys and games from the personal collection of Tomi Ungerer are also part of this collection.What also makes the richness of his work is the diversity of means of expression (posters, children's drawings, illustrations, comics) and the styles used. Tomi Ungerer has always refused to be enclosed in a technique or a specific genre to better preserve the difference and the originality of his ideas. Tomi Ungerer's children's books ''The Three Brigands''(1) and John of the Moon (2) are world-renowned and his poster against the racial segregation ''Black Power / White Power'' (3) quickly became an icon. His pencil shots are part of the history of the 20th century: he crunches the New York bourgeoisie and also offers a reflection on the Vietnam war. His field of observation is finally his contemporay human society. He manipulates the art of criticism in all its forms, but without hatred. However, this cruelty and this truth remain in these works that present the world to children, but ultimately to adults too. In 1998, he was awarded the Hans Christian Andersen Prize, an illustrious award, the highest distinction for a children's book author. Still, a large part of his drawings references are from his region of origin, Alsace.Technically, he most often uses drawing, which he adapts with great mobility to his means of expressions. He likes Chinese ink, applied to the pen, or in brushes, very frequently on the support of a tracing paper. In contrast to the often light background, the black line is sometimes slightly raised by a touch of color. In addition, it gives volume to the silhouette by a stroke of more or less thick brush. He also uses other techniques such as the grease pencil, which accentuates the sculptural side of certain drawings, like those of Babylon. Another technique inherited from the surrealists (like Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Hoch, John Heartfield or Max Ernst), Tomi Ungerer used collage. He associates his Chinese ink drawings with elements of photographs, photocopies, fabrics, embroidery or newsprint, as in New York Times advertising projects. These advertisements have to be highlighted by simple and direct graphics. The color is vivid and often contrasted with black. In addition, a carefully designed layout reinforces the visual effect of shock: the composition, often structured according to a diagonal, is influenced by the Japanese style of the beginning of the century that characterized Toulouse Lautrec and the Nabis. The absurd and the strange also contribute to having a good poster. His slogan "Expect the Unexpected" is now in New York slang and sums up his goal perfectly.By his sense of observation, the sobriety of his trait and his taste for absurdity and derision, Tomi Ungerer follows the line of satirical drawing that includes his predecessors Daumier, Hogarth or Busch. Today, we find in his work the echo of our preoccupations and his vision of the world, admittedly cruel, remains without hatred.

c/ The transmission of a territory with a history The value of heritage is also felt in a context of pride of belonging to a territory. Indeed, we note the appearance of museums dedicated to retrace the history of the city where they are located. These museums prove the will not to forget the past but also to transmit it to future generations. Moreover, a visit to such a museum  will attract tourists' interests in other city's aspects that they knew. This will perhaps push them to discover and therefore to visit more, and therefore to consume more on the territory concerned.In the north, the new Departmental Museum in Flanders, which opened in October 2010 in the city of Cassel, a city with 14,000 inhabitants, attracted more than 50,000 visitors who came to discover this new institution dedicated to highlighting the cultural identity of Flanders. Another major site for its heritage and historical interest, Fontainebleau welcomed nearly 385,000 visitors in 2011, 11% more than in 2009.The discovery of a territory and a heritage through the museum also takes place in a context of pedagogy and a desire to convey a story. For example, the Historial of the Great War in Péronne ranks 53rd in the ranking of the first museums in cities with less than 20,000 inhabitants and maintains accessible pricing and cultural offerings aimed at family and school audiences.We consequently see a link between culture, heritage, historical past, and economics. All this confirms the increase in the presence of a certain patrimonial feeling on our societies, concretised by the museums, in particular the "themed" museums which become a good compromise for cities with a cultural presence already well marked.

The museum is an ancient institution. Indeed, the first museum was created in Alexandria around 280 BC. However, its functions and objectives are changing in coalition with the evolution of the present society. And even in cities with a strong cultural notoriety, the museum has to modify itself to improve the supply and consequently increase the demand. Thus, modernization is not only a means of modifying an old site due to a lack of maintenance or novelty, but it is also a way to improve the accessibility of the museum and make it more attractive. Overcoming these demands is not only necessary to ensure the long life and quality of life of citizens, but also a sine qua non condition for the creation of new jobs arising from the development of the tertiary sector (and which must replace those that have been permanently lost in the industry) and to capture the investments that make them possible.Remarkable architecture, prestigious exhibitions, highlights or discoveries of artists or heritage are all ways to strengthen the competitiveness of museums.It should also be noted that this voluntarism has borne fruit beyond expectation because, in addition to the modernization of existing museums, this new attention to the institution has sparked an unprecedented wave of creations, difficult to estimate as their number is still increasing exponentially today. For example, twenty years after its founding, the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie in Paris has achieved remarkable results in the dissemination of scientific and technical culture. With its 3.2 million visitors in 2005, it became the 4th most visited museum behind the Louvre, the Pompidou Center and the Palace of Versailles. It competes with the prestigious Science Museum in London and the Deutsches Museum in Munich. With its 7 million annual visits, its website has established itself as a powerful vector for the transmission of knowledge in France and abroad.

Economic agents are led to seek, through the museum institution, the creation of beneficial effects on the economic fabric of a certain territory. We will now examine the particularities of these economic impacts by highlighting some French museums with relevant traits.C/ MUSEUMS IN FORMER INDUSTRIAL CITIESMuseums, places of the world and the people, are today increasingly used in urban policies set up in regions marked by landscapes destroyed by industry and with an unattractive image. The museum represents a strong element of structuring, a pillar of the new urbanism, gaining thus the status of monument. To illustrate our remarks, we will continue to take the example of the Louvre-Lens. This museum seemed to be relevant to us not only because of its symbolic dimension, but also because of its economic importance, and this is what we are going to explore here. Indeed, the challenge of this major development is to revitalize the territory of a city in crisis, Lens, and more generally an entire territory that retains many traces of its mining pass. This construction is part of a rather recent phenomenon of decentralization (incorporated in the law of 2002), consisting of creating symbolic museum antennas and with a strong identity as here the Louvre of Paris in the province, transferring collections from the museum.This phenomenon, the city of Metz has already experienced it with the establishment of the Center Pompidou in 2010 as antenna of the center of Paris. Since then, the city acquired a certain notoriety. This completed project will allow us to complete our remarks by making a comparison between these two institutions and showing that the Center Pompidou de Metz acts as an example for the Louvre-Lens.

1/ STRENGTHENING THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE TERRITORY AND ITS IMPACTSIn this desire for economic revitalization, agents focus on the economic impact of the economy in the medium to long term rather than on the short-term economic impact. This distinction between "short-term" and "medium-long term" refers to the period during which the territory will benefit from the increase in activity generated by the event.The short-term impacts sought concern the stimulation of the economic territory, that is to say the injection of resources of activities such as organizer expenses and visitors' expenses.As for the impacts sought here in the medium or long term, they come mainly from the benefits linked to the strengthening of the attractiveness of the territory following the media coverage of the event. Indeed, the creation of a museum will boost tourism, move new inhabitants, new businesses ... The activity resulting from the exploitation of the equipment carried out on the occasion of the creation of a museum, a museum represents a significant economic stimulus.But these medium- and long-term impacts do not manifest themselves automatically. They are all the more likely to happen as events are important and original. Thus, if they are sometimes referred to in economic studies, they are rarely measured because of their difficulty in establishing a link with the museum establishment. However, three types can be distinguished:

a) The development of new clienteles which represent initial expenditure and therefore side effects during present and subsequent visits. Indeed, once an influx of tourists takes shape through "products of appeal"* such as new museums, the economic spin-offs for traders are certain. The future Louvre-Lens museum is expected to host around 700,000 visitors in the first year and more than 500,000 visitors on average per year from 2014, one-third of which are local people, one third from the Euro-region and one thirds foreigners. These figures correspond to those of the Pompidou Center in Metz as there were about 800,000 visitors during the inaugural year in 2010 and it welcomed 552,000 visitors in 2011. In addition, the public is 80% French and 20% foreigner, the Lorrainers representing only half of the French public, which proves the museum's influence beyond the region. Moreover, the city of Lens really favors the access to foreign visitors by its proximity with other European countries. It is 2 hours by train from the Belgian capital Brussels, 30 minutes by train from Lille, 1 hour by motorway from Calais... Foreign visitors are all the more coveted for their average shopping basket which is 241€ per month against 150€ per month for the inhabitants of the city of Metz.The most anticipated visitors are the 100 million European inhabitants within a radius of 350 km around the city. This position as an economic, logistical, and above all cultural "crossroad" among European countries was also claimed when the Pompidou Center was established in Metz. The city of Metz, located 253km from Brussels and equidistant from the city of Luxembourg, Saarbrücken in Germany and Nancy, is enrolled in a cross-border population basin of more than 1 500 000 habitants. Moreover, and to illustrate these facts, according to a barometric study of the public of the Pompidou Center, foreign visitors come from (in order of attendance) Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. The Pompidou-Metz center opened to the public on May 12, 2010 and on November 4, 2010, it already registered its 500,000th visitor, which represent a success in terms of attendance: it is three times more than what was expected. Since then the institution recently celebrated a new attendance record. Aurélie Filippetti, Minister of Culture and Communication, was solicited to embody the 1,500,000th visitor, on September 7, 2012.

 b) The evolution of the image of the territory through the museum. Indeed, the fame, or reputation, of a city or a region sees itself increase after the establishment of a museum. The area has therefore more interest and is perceived as attractive by many more people (representing consumers here) who are therefore more inclined to visit the museum. This phenomenon is part of a genuine territorial marketing campaign undertaken by cities that are actually seeking to establish a distinctive symbolic capital by "flagship" monuments in English. The Louvre-Lens Museum is all the more a top-of-the-range project, which will make the public come as much for its architecture as for its content. It is indeed a real architectural work of art created by the Japanese agency SANAA, which won the international competition which had nevertheless received 124 answers from teams of architectural agencies. In addition, the Permanent Commission* of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region chose this architecture for the reasons that it is easily accessible, transparent and open to nature.In Lens, one of the main stakes in the construction of the Louvre is indeed a transformation of the image of the territory. Indeed, the museum, accompanied by a landscaped park created by a French landscape architect, is built on a former mine tile, symbolizing the industrial past of the region. The town of Lens is located in the heart of the coal basin of Nord Pas-de-Calais which forms a 110 km long and 10-15 km wide industrial arc. Moreover, since the closure of the last Lensian well in 1986, unemployment is increasingly high: 15% of the working population is unemployed in this area of ​​the mining area, whereas the norm is only of 13% in the department of Pas-de-Calais and below 10% in the rest of France. Indeed, 350,000 jobs have disappeared in a few decades. Also, annual revenues are lower than elsewhere: 14,000 euros against 16,000 for the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. Finally, the 10,000 hectares of mining rights, 2,500 heaps and 1,000 hectares of industrial wastelands complete the mining legacy of this region. The Louvre, which was symbolically inaugurated on December 4, the day of Sainte-Barbe, patroness of the miners, will thus act as a launching pad for the development of the image of this area, development accompanied by the ranking in July of the Pas-de-Calais mining basin to the Unesco World Heritage list. At the same time, 20 million euros have been committed to give a new lease of life to the city: a new road network, trees plantations... This ranking and this renewal of the city is a sign that announces the new (re)created area by the museum.At the Pompidou Center in Metz, despite the fact that the evolution of the image of a territory is difficult to measure, it can be said that the image of the city of Metz has changed. Visitors have been able to discover the richness of the city's heritage, which for too long had been undervalued by a land devastated by the collapse of steel. In fact, the Metz Tourist Office recorded a 63% increase in requests for information. At the same time, this astonishing "coincidence" can be noted: during the construction of the underground car park in the Pompidou-Metz center, an archaeological excavation was carried out near the amphitheater of Metz, thus updating many vestiges dating from 1st century, which attracted the interest of visitors. Newly elected as the capital of Culture 2013, the city of Marseille relies on culture and more specifically on the opening of museums to catch up, to fill its political deficiencies, to save the northern districts and to carry out social policies. Indeed, Marseille is perceived as a city with existing poverty and prevailing violence. 29.7% of the Marseillais wre actually poor in 2010, while in other major French cities, poverty was only about 18.9%. 16% of the workforce is unemployed, compared to 11.7% of the working population in other settlements of more than 500 000 inhabitants. Finally, 21% of active young people are unemployed, which proves the idleness of young people in Marseille. A study by Francis Kramaz makes the link between youth unemployment and delinquency. Marseille has therefore chosen to change course at the cultural level to meet substantially difficult objectives. For this, several projects are going on in the city. The Old Port is under construction, the docks are being rehabilitated ... Marseille has put more emphasis on constructions or renovations of cultural infrastructures than on artistic programming, because it is thanks to them that it has the possibility of becoming a pole of attractiveness. The other highlight is the deliberate will to focus this year (2013) towards the Mediterranean basin by welcoming many artists from the surrounding countries such as Tunisia, Egypt, Algeria and Syria. An architecture agency has even undertaken the renovation of a former industrial wasteland, the tobacco factory, to transform it into a future active cultural center in the city, which counts more than 70 cultural structures. In the district of La Joliette, from which two Roms populations were expelled two years ago and where former industrial hangars were located, the new "skyline" of Marseille is standing, with offices in the district of Euromed business. In total, there are 12 million visitors expected in this new cultural city. Marseille aims at least on a return on investment comparable to that of Lille, which was capital of culture in 2004, with six euros raised by the local economy for a euro invested, a financial windfall estimated at 600 million euros. In Lille, tourism increased by 10% and the number of jobs created in the trade, hotel and restaurant sector increased by 7%.This phenomenon of image enhancement is also observable at this very moment in the industrial suburbs of Paris. Two of the most famous art dealers in the world are settled there, notably the Californian Larry Gagosian, who will exhibit in a warehouse in Le Bourget, renovated by Jean Nouvel, a famous French architect.This evolution of the image of the territory must therefore be disseminated to attract visitors. This is where active promotional campaigns, such as the "Louvre en sang et or", for the Louvre-Lens, carried by the image of the famous Eugene Delacroix, La Liberté guidant le Peuple, intervene. This work, one of the best known of the nineteenth century and even of French Painting as a whole, was chosen to be transferred to the Louvre-Lens in order to energize the opening of the museum in December 2012. This imposing oil on canvas of 260cm by 325cm by the romantic painter* Delacroix, inspired by the French Revolution, is still symbolically very strong today. One is struck by the important place of the woman of the people, wearing a Phrygian cap, symbol of the French Republic. This place is accentuated by the light that seems to come from the background and by the backlight in which the woman seems to advance towards the viewer. She wields the tricolor flag which occupies the median axis of the canvas. At the same time, the dominant colors of the painting are blue, white and red, those of the French flag. From the people emerge gray and brown hues, warm colors that seem to dominate the bodies of the rioters, in which two street children are seen, a man wearing a topsail, surely coming from the bourgeoisie but wearing workmen pants and a worker wearing a beret and his banner on his shoulder. The artist Eugene Delacroix is ​​here making himself a real witness of his time, representing "Les Trois Glorieuses", that is to say the three days of the Parisian popular uprising against Charles X, on July 27, 28 and 29, 1830. He even said, "I have undertaken a modern subject, a barricade, and if I have not conquered my country, I shall at least paint for it", which testifies to its romantic fervor in translating revolutionary events and his rejection of the classical ideal of academic art. In this picture, the image of the Republic is conveyed by the central image of woman, that allegorical figure which mingles with men and participates in the struggle, which ultimately gathers the people and the bourgeoisie in a revolutionary lyricism borne by the pyramidal construction of the painting. By being used to promote the opening of the Louvre-Lens, the work continues to be an emblem of French painting but also of the French homeland, an important symbol in the mining region of Lens, where coal mining generated 1 million jobs, and where the arrival of the Louvre had already been perceived as a tribute of the nation to all that the miners called "the black mouths" and their work.

2 / THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW POTENTIALS IN THE TERRITORYThe presence of the museum generates the emergence of new productive sectors that are at the origin of new activities, and this is what generates a whole economic dynamism. Capacity, know-how are developing and then the territory becomes an attractive economic zone. The so-called "concentric" activities, which have a direct link with the museum, are also developing, as we have seen in the new ways of financing the museum. Thus, the first phenomenon of economic stimulation resulting from the creation of a museum, the primary impact, corresponds to an increase in the activity of local businesses. In Metz, outside the visit of the Center Pompidou, the main activities of the visitors are:40% shopping, 30% visit of the Metz Cathedral and 30% of consumption in restaurants, cafes and tea rooms. In addition, the Cathedral of Metz registered an increase in attendance of about 50%.A phenomenon of propagation of this "initial injection" of resources into the local economy will thus be created by the economic relations between the agents of the territory (households, enterprises and local authorities). Indeed, the companies that have benefited from the surplus of activity will reinvest some of the resources into the local economy in the form of orders placed with suppliers and wages paid to the employees. This is called the secondary impact, that is, when companies generate the activity of other companies and so on... For example, Euralens, the Louvre project created within the framework of the Regional Economic Development Scheme (SRDE) which also refers to Euralille, a project that has led to the development of Lille, intends to act on the economic fabric by several means. Car parks, landscaping, roads and even 145 homes for 2020 and 247 long-term in Liévin, in the nearby town, will bring a fresh perspective on the mining area that the inhabitants no longer had. The installation of a tramway will link the three municipalities of Lens, Liévin and Loos-en-Gohelle and finally the transformation of mining cities into eco-neighborhoods will enable to concretize this desire for an exemplary spatial transformation that will surely engender territory dynamisms.a) Boosting of investment and tourismIn Lens, offices, shops and new housing are indeed built around the museum. For example, Bruno Rosik, head of the merchants' association, opened a new establishment and a seminar center with 300 places. In addition, 64 economic and urban projects should be created according to Bernard Masset, general delegate of Euralens.As far as the tourist sector is concerned, Lens' tourist offer was previously described as mediocre. The city actually had only three establishments. The tourism sector, which represents an economic stake, was therefore to be filled to support a museum project of such magnitude. This is why there is a three-star hotel in front of the train station, and a four-star hotel should be opened near the museum. Moreover, the development of tourism will benefit a vast territory. Concerning the Pompidou Center in Metz, the Novotel hotel noted an increase in demand but also a modification of the clientele. According to Pascal Chauveau, the hotel's manager, before the museum was built, the hotel recorded 90% of customers coming for business and only 10% for leisure activities. After the construction of the Pompidou-Metz center, the leisure clientele grew to 40%, bringing the number of customers coming on business to 60%. Moreover, municipalities located some sixty kilometers across the Moselle border are now recovering the fruits of the center's establishment in Metz for their own infrastructure.Finally, the first results are already visible to Lens: American tour operators have included this destination in their catalog.

b) Development of areas of excellence and innovationThe mayors around Lens have decided to launch a multitude of projects: poles of excellence* in digital, logistics, renewable energies, eco-construction, training centers dedicated to crafts, renovation of mining cities , fast connection with Lille ...).As far as the economy of sport is concerned, the establishment of the museum, both in Lens and in Metz, completes a territory of leisure places that will attract tourists and broadcast their visits to facilities such as Racing Club in Lens or the Arsenal in Metz.Local employment is also stimulated by this development resulting from the construction of the museum, notably through the activity of construction companies * during the museum's work (about 250 jobs have been created concerning the construction industry in Lens) but also directly or indirectly by each company in the region from the opening of the museum. According to Gilbert Rolos, mayor (PC) of Sallaumines and president of the mission of the mining basin, "the Louvre-Lens should generate 1,000 direct or induced jobs". With the opening of the museum, jobs created directly by the Louvre-Lens for its own functioning concern reception, visits, room supervision, technical management, in-house restoration, educational workshops, associated shows, the activities of the auditorium, the operation, maintenance and animation of the museum park.Secondly, the indirect jobs correspond rather to the activities of outside companies, subcontractors or suppliers of the Louvre-Lens.With a potential of around 900 jobs, the Louvre-Lens therefore has a fairly significant impact.The sectors concerned with crafts, restoration of works of art, animation and cultural mediation also expect a lot in terms of employment. The talents are thus mobilized in places of competence such as the school of crafts of Arras, the school of Fine Arts, or universities like those of Lille, notably the University of Artois. Upstream, in order to sensitize the youth and contribute to the general improvement of the educational level, the opening of a History of Arts option at the Lycée Condorcet de Lens was created, offering students the opportunity to receive an unprecedented training.These objectives of developing the attractiveness of the territory of Lens are supported by 60 members, be they political (the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, the Pas-de-Calais department, cultural, economic (Louvre Museum, SNCF, Chambers of Commerce and Industry, University of Artois ...) or associations (the Mining Basin Uni, the Racing Club de Lens ...). The ultimate goal of the Euralens strategy is therefore to reinforce the influence and dynamism of a large urban area and to improve the well-being of the population. It is within this framework that the socio-economic diagnosis of the territory of the Louvre-Lens will be carried out to measure the different impacts that we have just seen. It will be accompanied by an annual follow-up of synthetic indicators over a period of five years, at which time a new inventory will be drawn up. These motivations are, of course, inspired by the success of the Pompidou Center in Metz, which recorded 70 million euros in direct economic spin-offs (overnight stays, restaurants ...). It has also led to the creation of some 50 direct jobs.

The museum is therefore a centerpiece of a "cultural urbanism", a policy led by agents with a real desire to modify a territory. This change takes place both through the image individuals have of this territory and the one they convey, and by economic agents wishing to create an economic pole that would also include the characteristics of a cultural and therefore social pole. Today, cultural offerings therefore seem to be an essential factor in development and attractiveness. It is the largest museum in the world in one of the poorest cities in France, sums up the mayor PS, Guy Delcourt. "Lens is dying, it can revive." "This implantation, in the heart of an old working-class city, is a miracle," concludes Daniel Percheron, president of the Regional Council.

Two instruments are most often used to assess the success of museums: the total number of visitors and the ratio of visits to the total population. According to these tools, museum audiences have increased considerably since the 1970s in developed countries. Thus, the French national museums welcomed 14 million visitors, including 10 million visitors paying in 2000. This increase in attendance is due to an explosion of the offer, as museum openings and renovations have multiplied from the 1980s onwards. In Europe, there has been both an increase in exhibition space, complete reorganization or even the opening of new premises. At the same time, there is a development of the will to make the institution more accessible to all and therefore to desecrate it. The museum is thus a place of dialogue between works and between people, a place of encounters and conflicts and no longer a place of worship reserved for the faithful. It is the ambition of the Louvre's president, Henri Loyrette: "Today, the museum must not only welcome visitors who come naturally, but also take by those who, far from cultural practices, perceive it as distant, and inaccessible. It has to look at the past, but it also has to create contemporary creativity and perspective ". At the same time, he stressed, it must also "integrate the latest developments in knowledge, adapt to the emergence of new audiences and the emergence and diffusion of new technologies". In addition, museums act today as "repairers of industrial crisis", term of the former Minister of Culture, Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres. Indeed, the museum is part of a vast urban regeneration policy that economically stimulates a territory but also symbolizes a certain pride because it gives the ability to write a new page of the history, culture and heritage of using notably significant paintings and admirable works of art. Thus, the Pompidou Center in Metz, built in 2010 with the aim of generating interest both socially and economically, recorded 800,000 visitors during the inaugural year and more than 1 million visitors in 2012 which propels it in first place of temporary exhibitions outside the island of France. The Louvre-Lens, an antenna of the Louvre installed in a mining region, opened last December following the example of this museum. A great deal of flexibility in the choice of works and a regular renewal of the presentations will reactivate the interest of the public for the museum. 700,000 visitors are expected in the first year. Lens now has to reconcile the accessibility of all types of public but also its urban integration. The most recent results show that this old mining town is well served by the 15% of the unemployed labor force: 36 000 visitors flocked for the opening weekend and there were more than 140 000 visitors the first month. Despite the fact that a desire to democratize culture does not necessarily lead to the expected expectations, other modes of dissemination of culture are changing and are constantly experiencing innovations, such as the digital domain, for example. which leads us to wonder about the evolutions to follow and that will certainly transform the world of museums.